The aftermath of the forest tent caterpillars

Watching Trees Grow

The Aftermath of the Forest Tent Caterpillars

August 12, 2010

By Quert Evans

2010 marked a catastrophic outbreak of the forest tent caterpillar throughout much of Northern Michigan. The outbreak began developing around 2006 when many began noticing a few caterpillars crawling around. Nothing real serous, in fact, if you did not know what they were, they went relatively unnoticed. In most instances they were misidentified as the Eastern Tent Caterpillar. Each year, numbers began to increase exponentially. In May and June of 2009, the distinct sound of caterpillar poop falling from the canopy was being reported though out most of the region. Larger blocks of forest lands were becoming visibly defoliated. In 2010 caterpillar numbers exploded and the previously defoliated areas merged together causing defoliation over most of the hardwood forest here in Northern Lower Michigan.

Most forest professionals recognized the insect as a native pest that should run a one or two year cycle then fade away not causing too much damage for another 15 years or so. Starvation, parasitic flies, and bacteria’s would eventually collapse the population. Having been though this before, there seemed to be no real concerns about tree health or our forests, “the trees will recover” was a common reply from many scientist and foresters. Unfortunately, we were wrong about that in many instances.

I first encountered the forest tent caterpillars in the late 1980’s. My memory does not serve me well, but I believe it was 1989 when the entire Jordan Valley was defoliated. This out break did not include the western portions of Antrim County. Defoliation seems to have been contained east on M66. It seemed short and uneventful at the time, an interesting point of conversation for the coffee shop. Many locals don’t even remember the outbreak.

20 years later and after the second event in my lifetime, it turns out that these native bugs can have a devastating effect our northern hardwood forest. I spent the months of June, July and August 2010 inspecting woodlots that have been impacted by the Forest Tent Caterpillar. Some similarities began to pop up. In some areas late spring frost, high spring heat, drought and caterpillars may have combined forces killing thousands of trees. Other woodlots have had as much as 10 percent mortality with more trees stressed to the point where they may not recover. There is also some speculation that woodlots thinned within the past five years are most vulnerable.

STANDS THINNED WITHIN THE PAST FIVE YEARS - Did thinning actually increase stand mortality? Many of the stands I looked at have had some sort of thinning done in them within the past five years. This may be a coincidence, however other foresters have noticed this as well. In one stand there was a fairly distinct difference between a thinned stand and an adjoining un-thinned stand. It is believed that heavily stocked stands retain more heat and thus were less susceptible to below freezing temperatures in the spring. The broken canopy of the thinned stand may have collected colder air causing frost damage forcing some trees to set new leaves. This is normally not a problem for most trees. They have plenty of stored energy to set new leaves. However, this year the new leaves were then quickly eaten by caterpillars and many trees had trouble setting a third set of leaves, especially when defoliated the year before. Stands thinned below 80 sq.ft.BA seemed to be worst hit. Did the low stocking levels increase mortality?

Frost vs. high heat

Is it frost or possibly high heat in the spring that actually stressed the trees the most? One forester speculated that it may have been the 80 and 90 degree spring weather that burned up new leaves in the spring. Weather records indicated long stretches of unusually high temperatures this year and last year.

STANDS WITH NORTH AND EAST FACING SLOPES - In an area West of Kalkaska the North and or East facing slopes seemed to be hit harder than higher elevations. Although this did not hold true all the cases, topography seemed to play a role in the worst hit stands.

LOW ELEVATIONS - Lower lying forests again may not have had the air drainage to deal with cold temperatures. One stand along the Cedar River had over 50 percent mortality. As you moved away from the river valley mortality was not as bad. This stand was thinned two years ago.

SECOND YEAR DEFOLIATION - Common to most of the forests was the fact that most mortality occurred in stands that were in their second year of defoliation. Individual tree mortality and tree dieback is likely to continue for the next few years.

FUNGUS - The MDNR has reported a fungus that has followed the defoliations in several stands in Grand Traverse County. According to the MDNR, this fungus is causing increased mortality.

All of the above explanations are strictly speculative. Combined, these forces appeared to have been a lethal combination for many trees. The fact that caterpillars have had a tremendous impact on our northern hardwood forests is undeniable. The long term effects may not be seen for several years.

FOREST ECOLOGY- The ecologically the influences have been quit profound in most forests impacted by the caterpillars. The lack of tree canopy in the spring allowed scorching sunlight to reach the forest floor. Many of the plants that normally thrive in the under-story were now being replaced by plants rarely seen on the forest floor. Thistle, elderberry, common mullen, polk weed and a bumper crop of blackberry have over come many of the more shade tolerant plants. Also destroyed was much of the newly established sugar maple seedlings and saplings that blanked the forest floor in many stands. This is particularly irritating to many foresters who have worked hard at establishing new seedlings through forest management practices.

(Ground flora changing dynamics on the forest floor)

What are the long lasting effects? One thing is for sure - our forests are very dynamic and ever changing. It is likely that our forest have been through this many times. Some individual trees may have seen this pest eight or ten times in their lifetime. On the positive side, wildlife is likely the prime beneficiary. Dieing and declining trees now provide ample habitats for cavity nesting birds and small mammals. The lush and diverse ground flora is providing food and cover for deer and bear as well as many ground nesting and foraging birds and small mammals.

Here are a few more photos illustrating caterpillar damage.

(new leaves set on stem of tree)

(loss of property values)

(Foliage appears to have been burned on harvested tree July 2010)

(dieback in 20 inch maple August 2010)

(low lying area killed August 2010)

Autumn Olive

WATCHING TREES GROW

AUTUMN OLIVE

Invasive Plant or Wildlife Powerhouse

By Quert Evans

Autumn olive is not my favorite wildlife shrub I prefer hazelnut, thorn-apple, dogwoods, and Amur maple. However, no one can dispute the fact that autumn olive is by far the fastest growing, easiest to establish wildlife shrub available. I have seen it planted upside down and it still somehow survived. It thrives on poor soils and abandoned farm lands. It was once described as an ideal plant for those who want to attract wildlife, conserve soil, beautify odd areas, establish plant barriers or make ornamental plantings. Once established the plant has a tendency to spread. The spreading has created a stir around the plant and battle lines have been drawn regarding its usage. NRCS has gone from paying to establish the plant to paying for its removal through its various cost share programs. The MNDR wildlife biologists once rated the shrub the number one wildlife shrub available. Now they have it listed as an invasive species. Other groups such as the conservation districts have stopped selling it in their annual tree sales. I can acknowledge the plant does have some drawbacks. This article however, is written to tell the other side of this environmental issue.

I wonder, has anyone actually studied the plants impact on the landscape? Has there been any real discussion on the benefits verses the pitfalls of this plant? It’s been around this county for 100 years or more. It is seen popping up in old sand blow areas, railroad grades, abandoned fields and idle lands and many conclude that it is competing with native species. Farmers may have the best complaint as the plant does pop up under fencing and become a maintenance issue. Foresters in the south report the plant invading woodlands but no evidence of this is occurring in the north.

Autumn olive was introduced to the country in the 19^th century and quickly escaped from cultivation. In the 1960 – 1980’s it was widely planted for wildlife, farm windbreaks and soil erosion. As mentioned, NRCS pushed the plants attributes and assisted in its wide spread establishment.

Autumn olive is a nitrogen fixing plant which allows it to thrive on poorer soils. At the NRCS plant material center 24 plants were recorded to yield more than 900 pounds of berries annually. Robins, quail, pheasants, grouse and a host of other bird species find autumn olive berries highly attractive as a food source. The fruit ripens in the fall and is specifically important to migratory birds traveling south for the winter.

As a side note, autumn olive is an edible fruit for humans and contains 17 times the antioxidant Lycopene than the average tomato. The berries also contain high levels of vitamins A, C, and E, and flavonoids and essential fatty acids. Funny how wildlife always no what is good for them and what is not.

In Antrim County Autumn Olive has provided exquisite habitat for rabbits, deer, nesting song birds and turkey. No other plant can be seen concentrating wildlife in the fall like Autumn olive. Deer love this plant for a variety of reasons. First as food, but they normally cannot kill it because the plant grows to fast to be browsed to death. Some have observed deer feeding on the fruit itself. Secondly, deer love to use large blocks of autumn olive as display areas, bedding and escape cover all season long. Turkeys too love the fruit and spend early winter feeding on this plant almost exclusively. In the winter of 2009, 55 turkeys were observed every day in a larger block planting through the month of January.

Ruffed grouse love this plant. They love the overhead cover the plant provides for young broods as well as the fruit provided in the fall. Grouse can always be found near any block or planting of autumn olive. Rabbits may be the next benefactor of autumn olive planting. They use it for cover and raising young as well. There is normally grasses and other nutritious ground plants on the ground floor. Rich in nutrients from the nitrogen fixing attributes of the plant? Ground nesting birds, cedar wax wings, robins, blue jay, and others tend to love this plant. Autumn olive is extremely difficult for predators to hunt, although they do because this is often where their pray exists.

What else can be said. Oh did I mention the plants ability to act as a successional species. That is as the plant takes over an abandoned or idle field it creates an environment for additional species to take hold. These fields normally contain Canada thistle, grasses, wild strawberry and others. Autumn olive cools the site and allows trees like sugar maple to seed in under its protection. Nurse crop for hardwood plantings?

Autumn olive often freezes back to the snow line here in NW Lower Michigan. Meadow voles girdle the plant where it exist with grasses and often damage the plants ability to grow very large. It is not shade tolerant at all and can not survive in our predominant northern hardwood forest. I have spent 30 years working in the woods here and have never seen it take over a woodlot.

Conclusion, in Northern Michigan the plant seems to be a welcome addition to available food and cover for many wildlife species. If you are a sportsman you love this plants ability to attract wildlife. If you hate this plant it is understandable.

Selling Standing Timber

WATCHING TREES GROW

By Quert Evans

SELLING STANDING TIMBER

Selling standing timber has long been a subject wherever trees of value grow. How trees are bought and sold can be as complex any business transaction (you are selling a product or commodity). The quality of this commodity and in some cases the quantity of the commodity being sold will dictate the value of your trees. Competition, used to your advantage, will also have an influence on the value paid for your trees. While the value of a woodlot will vary depending on such factors such as size, quality, species composition, etc., a woodlot in good condition can have considerable value and can be managed to yield periodic income.

If you are contemplating selling some timber or if you are approached with an offer to buy some of your timber, don’t jump into an agreement too quickly. Taking the time to find out what you have to sell, then choosing the appropriate method of marketing will usually result in more income to the seller. In addition, selling timber and implementing forest management practices do not always mean the same thing. Cutting trees just because someone knocked on your door or sent you a letter is generally not a wise decision. It is better to take the time to evaluate what you have, what your goals and long term objectives are and ask yourself how will a timber harvest meet these goals and objective.

Buyers, brokers, industry and even consulting foresters will often utilize tactics that infer forest management in an attempt to lend credibility to their services. Here are several types of terms and definitions that are used by landowners, industry and foresters alike.

Managed cuts

Timber cutting is one of the forester’s major tools and is useful not only for generating income from a forest, but for accomplishing many other objectives such as improving the health and vigor of the forest, developing wildlife habitat, altering species composition, establishing planting areas, creating vistas and trail and developing certain types of recreational activities.

In fact, managed cuts are rarely achieved. A managed cut is one where the removal of trees is based on an understood objective. The trees harvested are selected based on statistical analysis of the woodlot. Here are a few treatment objectives often used in forest management. In a true managed cut, the trees selected for harvest are always individually marked with paint before bids are solicited or trees are cut down. In addition, specialized equipment my also be required.

1.) Stand Improvement Cuts - This is subject to some interpretations. Implies that your stand will be in better shape after the harvest. Generally speaking, true stand improvement cuts remove only the poorest quality trees in the woodlot and are often non-commercial in nature. Freeing up growing space for higher quality trees is the objective.

2.) Even aged management – Even aged management generally means that trees within the stand are generally all the same age or size. A red pine plantation is an example of an even-aged stand of timber. A harvest that removes one row and leaves two is a typical harvest recommendation in even-aged red pine plantations. Hardwood stand can also be managed as an even-aged forest. Diameter limit cuts, shelter-wood cuts and clear-cuts are examples of even-aged management of hardwood stands.

3.) Selection Systems and Uneven aged management – The term selection system applies to cutting activities used to create or maintain uneven-aged stands; the selection method is employed to regenerate stands as well as improve growing environments over a wider range of diameters. An uneven-aged stand contains at least three well defined age classes, “well defined” means differing in total height and age, not just in stem diameter. The selection system has been subject to many different interpretations. Rotations are generally shorter 10-15 years and multiple entries are needed to maintain the stand.

Managed cuts are the harvest cuts that many buyers will try and convince you that they are doing and many landowners say that they want. Open any paper and you will see advertisements regarding the buying of standing timber. Most will say something like: specializing in select cuts, managing our renewable forests, practicing sustainable forestry methods, or something that alludes to the ability of said company to manage your forest land. At the same time, landowners will often convey their interest in management cuts in general terms, that is, “I would like to manage my forest”, or “I would like to selectively harvest my woodlot”. Without professional assistance you are unlikely to achieve a managed forest system.

As a landowner, you need to develop an understanding of how a proposed harvest will influence the management of your of your stand.

Liquidation sales

Lets be real, there are times when we simply need some money. Often times a woodlot can fill this need. Liquidation of your timber asset is similar to selling a stock from your portfolio. There are several methods or “buzz” words that further describe a liquidation sale.

1.) High-graded sales – This is where you are only cutting your best trees. Selling your 100 best or biggest trees as an example. Cutting the highest grades of lumber products from the woodlot generally degrades the quality of future harvests.

2.) Clear-cutting – This is where you are removing all the trees on a given acreage. Some species like aspen may actually require a clear-cut at some point in their rotation.

3.) Diameter Cuts – This is where a specified diameter and those trees above that diameter are removed from the stand. Every tree 16 inches in diameter and larger, or all trees 18 inches and larger are examples. In this case a whole age class or size class is being liquidated from the stand as well as the most valuable trees. Diameter cuts are likely the most common type of cut occurring within our northern hardwood forest. The are also the most damaging to the sustainability of a forest stand. If someone says they are only going to cut trees 16 inches and larger, ask them where will they be measuring the trees? Also, this type of cutting proposal gives a great deal of latitude to the buyer. Generally they will consider 16 inches on the stump- allowing them to select from most all of the sawlog sized trees in your forest.

4.) Stump Cuts – This is where a specified measure on the stump is used as a sale parameter. All trees 16 inches and up, usually indicated that trees 16 inches and larger measured on the stump (ground level) are being cut. Like the diameter limit cut, this implies that an entire age class or age classes will be removed from the stand.

Sustainable Forestry- This term originated from state and federal agencies charged with the management of public lands. It is critical that these lands are management of produce a sustainable flow of forest products as well as other forest values. The forest products industry is a 9 billion dollar industry here in Michigan. Sustainability is a critical component of this economic force. Sustainable forestry on private lands has a direct influence on the forest economy however, differences in time lines, land ownership values, and ownership goals all influence the sustainability of a forest. Most landowners are interested in sustaining their woodlots ability to produce periodic incomes, produce recreational activities and produce wildlife habitats.

TYPES OF TIMBER SALES

LUMP SUM TIMBER SALE

A timber sale in which a single payment (the lump sum) is made to the seller for the trees designated for sale (TREES SHOULD BE MARKED FOR SALE).

Advantages

• Places the burden of quality and quantity assessment on the producer.

• Seller does not have to be knowledgeable in timber markets, logging, trucking, sawing, scaling and alike aspects of producing forest products.

• Seller does not have to worry about buyer’s ability or inability to market log products.

• Levels playing field among producers.

• Bids can be easily compared. A dollar value per tree can be easily computed.

• Assures payment. You are paid up front for your trees.

• Seller does not have to rely on the ability or inability of the producer to merchandize each tree.

Disadvantages

• Does not compensate for fluctuations in timber markets (upward).

• You have no control on who the producer is. Simply pick the highest bidder.

• Buyer’s tend to underestimate true value of trees. Cover the risk described above.

• More difficult to have a relationship with the producer.

SCALE SALE OR SCALE BY UNIT

A timber sale in which the seller is paid a certain amount for each unit of product cut (e.g. so many dollars per 1000 board feet, per cord, per post, per pole, etc.). This type of sale requires someone to measure the products harvested. This someone is typically the receiving sawmill.

Advantages

• Can negotiate a percentage of profit from each log produced.

• May be able to take advantage of specific market trends.

• Have a relationship with the logger/producer.

• Ability to see how logs are merchandized.

• Lower risk to the logger as described above.

Disadvantages

• Must have complete confidence in the credibility of the producer.

• The question of who provides an accurate production tally and how, when, and where the scaling will be done makes this sale more difficult to administer.

• Logger hold all of the cards with regards to marketing, transportation etc.

• Seller is relying on the merchandizing skills of the logger.

• Seller is relying on the marketing skills of the logger.

Types of Timber Buyers

A Timber Buyer - is someone who is willing to make you an offer on your standing timber.

A Broker – Is a timber buyer who will offer you a price for your timber then sell it to a sawmill or lumber company.

An Industry Buyer – Is a timber buyer who works for a single sawmill. They are paid by the sawmill to bring wood into the mill.

Timber snoops – Are individuals who makes an initial contact and refers you to a sawmill representative. He or she is paid a percentage of the timber value coming from a referral. Similar to a broker.

Loggers/ Jobbers - These are independent small businesses or companies. Often they will buy timber on shares or on a cut and scale basis. They sell their products to a variety of sawmills.

FORESTERS

Consulting Foresters – A consulting forester is a degreed forester who is operating a company or small business. They can be hired to market your standing timber.

Industry Foresters – Industry forester are degreed foresters hired by sawmills to purchase timber as well as assist with the management of company lands and private lands. They generally do not charge a fee. It should be understood that they are working for a given lumber company.

Public Service Foresters – Foresters that are employed by local governments, State governments or the Federal government are public service foresters. They can often be relied on to provide unbiased advise to private landowners.

the forbiden ecosystem

THE FORBIDDEN ECOSYSTEM

CONIFER PLANTATIONS AND BIODIVERSITY

PART 1

By Quert Evans

Anyone who drives through Michigan has likely noticed the plantation type conifer plantings that dot the landscape. Many were planted years ago (60) by the CCC under the State and Federal reforestation programs. Extensive additional acreages have been planted by individual landowners in co-operation NRCS, FSA, Conservation Districts and local Extension offices.

There are all kinds of conifer plantations in Michigan and they range from one acre to several hundred acres in size. They are of different ages, in different growing conditions and subject to varying management practices. There are plantations of red, white, jack and scotch pine, larch, Douglas fir, balsam fir and mixtures of all. They have been established for a variety of purposes including Christmas trees now abandoned, soil stabilization, wind breaks, reforestation, and wildlife. Most of these plantings exist on abandoned farm lands, hill sides, and lower productive agricultural lands.

What impact has plantation establishment had on wildlife habitats, on ecological diversity and or landscape diversity? Many wildlife biologists, ecologists and others viewed with alarm all the plantations growing on Michigan’s abandoned hills and agricultural fields. They felt (and many still do) that these areas create thousands of acres of “wildlife deserts”. The terms biological deserts and monoculture are commonly used to describe conifer plantings especially red pine. In fact agencies such as the MDNR, NRCS and the USFS became so enamored with their own verbiage that policies discriminating against the establishment of red pine began to filter into the conservation community.

After 20 years of planting thinning and observing the development and dynamics of the plantations here in Antrim County, I have discovered some unique attributes within our conifer plantations. Let’s take a close look at red pine the forbidden ecosystem.

Red pine grow well in sandy soils, it competes well and grows fast. It is drought resistant, and relatively free of major pest problems. The first 10 years young plantations struggling up through the grass and brambles have little effect on resident wildlife. Cottontails, meadowlark, vespar sparrows, mice and voles, grasshoppers, turkey, deer and raptors continue to use the area.

As the plantation begins to occupy the site the field takes on more of the characteristics of a thicket. While it is true, conditions within the stand become unfavorable to some wildlife, others prosper from the new habitat. At 10 to 15 years of age the plantation is much like an overgrown field but with considerably better cover. There are still plenty of islands of herbaceous ground cover and trees are close to the ground. Snowshoe hare and cotton tail rabbit couldn’t ask for a better home. They are soon joined by the towhee, robin and purple finch. Ruffed grouse begin utilizing the edges and song sparrows are common. Deer and bear love these plantations and begin using them every day.

By the time the plantation has grown to 20 to 25 feet in height, significant changes have taken place on the site. The crowns have closed shutting out the light and the lower limbs have begun to die. The traces of old field plants beneath the trees are nearly gone. Openings, however, are often created by blow-downs, storms, planting mortality, and insect damage. Thus, a variety of cover conditions can exist. It is at this stage of development that the plantation contains its greatest variety of wildlife. Rabbits and ruffed grouse occupy edges and the openings in summer and seek dense cover in winter. White-tail deer retreat to plantations for winter protection and hide their fawns in the summer. The gray fox and the red squirrel appear on the seen. Towhees nest in the openings and sing from the tops of the conifers. The purple finch, morning dove, the robin, and the veery, the black-throated, green, the myrtle, Nashville, magnolia and chestnut-sided warblers add song and color. Where sufficient ground cover exists or blow-down occurs, the slate colored junco is at home. Wood peckers exploit the dead limbs for insects.

Red pine and Scotch pine over 20 feet in height provide the white-tail deer with ideal winter cover. Often the snow is only a third of the depth outside. If the plantation is wide enough, the force of the wind is considerably reduced. On stormy winter days, deer and other wildlife retreat to the depths of the pine plantation. In fact, they prefer pines to the hardwood-hemlock forests for bedding. Scotch pine furnished food for deer and some studies have shown that they prefer the terminal whorls of Scotch pine over white cedar (Cornell University).

Exceptional habitat for wildlife begins to wane as the plantation continues to mature. It’s been 30 years plus or minus. More and more of the lower limbs and undercover disappear. Rabbits now use the area only for travel lanes. The gray fox and the red squirrel, the white footed mouse and the deer are the principal mammalian inhabitants. The birds of the thicket along with the veery and junco are gone. Only birds of the canopy, the black throated green warbler and the blue jay remain. Now for the first time the Blackburnian warbler, characteristic of older conifer growth, appears. Conspicuously few or absent, except in winter, are the chickadees and woodpeckers, since no suitable nesting sites occur. It is this stage where diversity is least and many view the area as a biological desert. Poor management or lack of management has lengthened the amount of time the plantations exists in this state. Often overstocked and stagnant these plantations are not void of diversity but do lack the thriving communities that once existed in them.

It is at this point that red pine begins another transformation. Around age 30 +/- these plantations become commercially attractive and thinning them is recommended. It is interesting to note that many of the plantations planted in the CCC days have been thinned at least once and likely two or three times. Revenues to the State and federal governments have been significant. Perhaps the economics of red pine can be discussed in another article.

First thinning within pine plantations commonly consist of row thinning. Removing 1/3 or every 3^rd row is the typical recommendation. Shortly after this fist thinning hardwood species, shrubs and herbaceous plants begin to invade the edges, landing areas and skid trails. If managed properly the plantations will receive periodic thinning at 10 to 12 year intervals. Each thinning changes the dynamics of the plantation.

After a second thinning, advancing hardwood and shrubs are persistent in the under-story. As hardwood begins to invade the under-story, rabbit and deer begin finding forage again. Ruff grouse and wood cock find acceptable breeding and rearing habitats, and song birds re-introduce themselves to the site. The plantation is now 40 – 45 years of age.

At age 55 – 60 the plantation is thinned again. At this time tree diameters have increased and larger diameter trees add additional diversity. Well established hardwoods exist in the under-story, now we have a multitude of wildlife using the under-story and canopy dwellers using the over-story. Rich diversity has returned to the stand. Rabbit, coyote, fox, deer, squirrel, grouse, woodcock, and bear make up the list of game species utilizing the plantations. The vertical diversity attracts resident song birds and neo-tropical birds alike.

Now managers have some decisions to make. Do we thin a 4^th and possibly 5^th time allowing tree diameters to exceed 20 inches? This decision will further the stands development toward a hardwood forest in most cases but may influence tree marketability. Is this best for resident wildlife? Do we leave a residual density of pine? And if so at what density is best for diversity? Keep in mind, pine both red and white can live up to 300 years! Do we clear-cut the pine and re-plant thus starting the cycle all over again?

Much is yet to be learned regarding conifer plantations and their contribution long term to our ecology. Most state and federal plantations and many private plantations are aging and removal at around the 16 inch diameter mark is often the rule. Although some sites are converted back to pine, many times the better quality sites are left to convert to hardwood, more on this in part II. Across the landscape red pine plantations and other conifer plantings have offered landscape diversity. They have acted as replacements for our disappearing conifer swamps and have jump started the successional process on abandoned agricultural lands. Lastly, in the case of red pine, wood products have played a significant role creating jobs and revenues for individuals and governmental agencies throughout the State.

I not sure if there is another artificially established ecosystem that offers more diversity over time or has had a greater impact on wildlife populations than the conifer plantation. Can you think of one?

BIRDS AND MAMMALS KNOW TO UTILIZE PINE PLANATIONS AT VARIOUS STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Cottontail Vespar sparrow Junco

Deer Towhee Woodpeckers (many)

Meadow Vole Robin Blue Jay

Red Squirrel Purple finch Blackburnian warbler

Bear Meadow Lark Black Poll Warbler

Hare Ruffed Grouse American Redstart

Fox (gray) Song sparrows Bobolink

Fox (red) Morning Dove Canada Warbler

White footed mouse Veery Gray Catbird

Raccoon Black Throated Warbler Grosbeak

Coyote Chestnut sided Warbler Whip poor will

Bobcat Green Warbler Wood thrush

Black Squirrel Nashville Warbler Pine Warbler

Magnolia Warbler Oven bird

Indigo Bunting Red eyed Verio

Hawks (many) Owls (many)

Woodcock Chickadee

Wild Turkey

Not a complete list.